47 USC 609 - Short title

Collapse to view only § 609. Short title

§ 601. Interstate Commerce Commission and Postmaster General; duties, powers, and functions transferred to Commission
§§ 602, 603. Repealed.
§ 604. Effect of transfer
§ 605. Unauthorized publication or use of communications
§ 606. War powers of President
§ 607. Effective date of chapter
§ 608. Separability
§ 609. Short title
§ 610. Telephone service for disabled
§ 611. Closed-captioning of public service announcements
§ 612. Syndicated exclusivity
§ 613. Video programming accessibility
§ 614. Telecommunications Development Fund
§ 615. Support for universal emergency telephone number
§ 615a. Service provider parity of protection
§ 615a-1. Duty to provide 9–1–1 and enhanced 9–1–1 service
§ 615b. Definitions
§ 615c. Emergency Access Advisory Committee
§ 616. Internet protocol-based relay services
§ 617. Access to advanced communications services and equipment
§ 618. Enforcement and recordkeeping obligations
§ 619. Internet browsers built into telephones used with public mobile services
§ 620. Relay services for deaf-blind individuals
§ 621. Rulemaking on loud commercials required
§ 622. Optional electronic labeling of communications equipment
§ 623. Configuration of multi-line telephone systems for direct dialing of 9–1–1.
§ 624. Disclosure requirements for United States-based foreign media outlets

§ 601. Interstate Commerce Commission and Postmaster General; duties, powers, and functions transferred to Commission

(a) All duties, powers, and functions of the Interstate Commerce Commission under sections 9 to 15 of this title, relating to operation of telegraph lines by railroad and telegraph companies granted Government aid in the construction of their lines, are imposed upon and vested in the Commission: Provided, That such transfer of duties, powers, and functions shall not be construed to affect the duties, powers, functions, or jurisdiction of the Interstate Commerce Commission under, or to interfere with or prevent the enforcement of, subtitle IV of title 49.

(b) All duties, powers, and functions of the Postmaster General with respect to telegraph companies and telegraph lines under any existing provision of law are imposed upon and vested in the Commission.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 701, formerly title VI, § 601, 48 Stat. 1101; renumbered title VII, § 701, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804.)

§§ 602, 603. Repealed. Pub. L. 103–414, title III, § 304(a)(13), Oct. 25, 1994, 108 Stat. 4297

§ 604. Effect of transfer

(a) Orders, determinations, rules, regulations, permits, contracts, licenses, and privileges

(b) Availability of records

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 704, formerly title VI, § 604, 48 Stat. 1103; renumbered title VII, § 704, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804; amended Pub. L. 103–414, title III, § 304(a)(14), Oct. 25, 1994, 108 Stat. 4297.)

§ 605. Unauthorized publication or use of communications

(a) Practices prohibited

(b) ExceptionsThe provisions of subsection (a) shall not apply to the interception or receipt by any individual, or the assisting (including the manufacture or sale) of such interception or receipt, of any satellite cable programming for private viewing if—

(1) the programming involved is not encrypted; and

(2)

(A) a marketing system is not established under which—

(i) an agent or agents have been lawfully designated for the purpose of authorizing private viewing by individuals, and

(ii) such authorization is available to the individual involved from the appropriate agent or agents; or

(B) a marketing system described in subparagraph (A) is established and the individuals receiving such programming has obtained authorization for private viewing under that system.

(d) DefinitionsFor purposes of this section—

(1) the term “satellite cable programming” means video programming which is transmitted via satellite and which is primarily intended for the direct receipt by cable operators for their retransmission to cable subscribers;

(2) the term “agent”, with respect to any person, includes an employee of such person;

(3) the term “encrypt”, when used with respect to satellite cable programming, means to transmit such programming in a form whereby the aural and visual characteristics (or both) are modified or altered for the purpose of preventing the unauthorized receipt of such programming by persons without authorized equipment which is designed to eliminate the effects of such modification or alteration;

(4) the term “private viewing” means the viewing for private use in an individual’s dwelling unit by means of equipment, owned or operated by such individual, capable of receiving satellite cable programming directly from a satellite;

(5) the term “private financial gain” shall not include the gain resulting to any individual for the private use in such individual’s dwelling unit of any programming for which the individual has not obtained authorization for that use; and

(6) the term “any person aggrieved” shall include any person with proprietary rights in the intercepted communication by wire or radio, including wholesale or retail distributors of satellite cable programming, and, in the case of a violation of paragraph (4) of subsection (e), shall also include any person engaged in the lawful manufacture, distribution, or sale of equipment necessary to authorize or receive satellite cable programming.

(e) Penalties; civil actions; remedies; attorney’s fees and costs; computation of damages; regulation by State and local authorities

(1) Any person who willfully violates subsection (a) shall be fined not more than $2,000 or imprisoned for not more than 6 months, or both.

(2) Any person who violates subsection (a) willfully and for purposes of direct or indirect commercial advantage or private financial gain shall be fined not more than $50,000 or imprisoned for not more than 2 years, or both, for the first such conviction and shall be fined not more than $100,000 or imprisoned for not more than 5 years, or both, for any subsequent conviction.

(3)

(A) Any person aggrieved by any violation of subsection (a) or paragraph (4) of this subsection may bring a civil action in a United States district court or in any other court of competent jurisdiction.

(B) The court—

(i) may grant temporary and final injunctions on such terms as it may deem reasonable to prevent or restrain violations of subsection (a);

(ii) may award damages as described in subparagraph (C); and

(iii) shall direct the recovery of full costs, including awarding reasonable attorneys’ fees to an aggrieved party who prevails.

(C)

(i) Damages awarded by any court under this section shall be computed, at the election of the aggrieved party, in accordance with either of the following subclauses;(I) the party aggrieved may recover the actual damages suffered by him as a result of the violation and any profits of the violator that are attributable to the violation which are not taken into account in computing the actual damages; in determining the violator’s profits, the party aggrieved shall be required to prove only the violator’s gross revenue, and the violator shall be required to prove his deductible expenses and the elements of profit attributable to factors other than the violation; or(II) the party aggrieved may recover an award of statutory damages for each violation of subsection (a) involved in the action in a sum of not less than $1,000 or more than $10,000, as the court considers just, and for each violation of paragraph (4) of this subsection involved in the action an aggrieved party may recover statutory damages in a sum not less than $10,000, or more than $100,000, as the court considers just.

(ii) In any case in which the court finds that the violation was committed willfully and for purposes of direct or indirect commercial advantage or private financial gain, the court in its discretion may increase the award of damages, whether actual or statutory, by an amount of not more than $100,000 for each violation of subsection (a).

(iii) In any case where the court finds that the violator was not aware and had no reason to believe that his acts constituted a violation of this section, the court in its discretion may reduce the award of damages to a sum of not less than $250.

(4) Any person who manufactures, assembles, modifies, imports, exports, sells, or distributes any electronic, mechanical, or other device or equipment, knowing or having reason to know that the device or equipment is primarily of assistance in the unauthorized decryption of satellite cable programming, or direct-to-home satellite services, or is intended for any other activity prohibited by subsection (a), shall be fined not more than $500,000 for each violation, or imprisoned for not more than 5 years for each violation, or both. For purposes of all penalties and remedies established for violations of this paragraph, the prohibited activity established herein as it applies to each such device shall be deemed a separate violation.

(5) The penalties under this subsection shall be in addition to those prescribed under any other provision of this subchapter.

(6) Nothing in this subsection shall prevent any State, or political subdivision thereof, from enacting or enforcing any laws with respect to the importation, sale, manufacture, or distribution of equipment by any person with the intent of its use to assist in the interception or receipt of radio communications prohibited by subsection (a).

(f) Rights, obligations, and liabilities under other laws unaffected

(g) Universal encryption standardThe Commission shall initiate an inquiry concerning the need for a universal encryption standard that permits decryption of satellite cable programming intended for private viewing. In conducting such inquiry, the Commission shall take into account—

(1) consumer costs and benefits of any such standard, including consumer investment in equipment in operation;

(2) incorporation of technological enhancements, including advanced television formats;

(3) whether any such standard would effectively prevent present and future unauthorized decryption of satellite cable programming;

(4) the costs and benefits of any such standard on other authorized users of encrypted satellite cable programming, including cable systems and satellite master antenna television systems;

(5) the effect of any such standard on competition in the manufacture of decryption equipment; and

(6) the impact of the time delay associated with the Commission procedures necessary for establishment of such standards.

(h) Rulemaking for encryption standard

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 705, formerly title VI, § 605, 48 Stat. 1103; Pub. L. 90–351, title III, § 803, June 19, 1968, 82 Stat. 223; Pub. L. 97–259, title I, § 126, Sept. 13, 1982, 96 Stat. 1099; renumbered title VII, § 705, and amended Pub. L. 98–549, §§ 5(a), 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2802, 2804; Pub. L. 100–626, § 11, Nov. 7, 1988, 102 Stat. 3211; Pub. L. 100–667, title II, §§ 204, 205, Nov. 16, 1988, 102 Stat. 3958, 3959; Pub. L. 103–414, title III, §§ 303(a)(25)–(28), 304(a)(15), Oct. 25, 1994, 108 Stat. 4295–4297; Pub. L. 104–104, title II, § 205(a), Feb. 8, 1996, 110 Stat. 114.)

§ 606. War powers of President

(a) Priority communications

(b) Obstruction of interstate or foreign communications

(d) Suspension or amendment of rules and regulations applicable to wire communications; closing of facilities; Government use of facilities

(e) Compensation

(f) Affect on State laws and powers

(g) Limitations upon Presidential power

(h) Penalties

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 706, formerly title VI, § 606, 48 Stat. 1104; Jan. 26, 1942, ch. 18, §§ 1, 2, 56 Stat. 18; Dec. 29, 1942, ch. 836, 56 Stat. 1096; July 25, 1947, ch. 327, § 1, 61 Stat. 449; Oct. 24, 1951, ch. 553, §§ 1, 2, 65 Stat. 611; renumbered title VII, § 706, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804.)

§ 607. Effective date of chapter

This chapter shall take effect upon the organization of the Commission, except that this section and sections 151 and 154 of this title shall take effect July 1, 1934. The Commission shall be deemed to be organized upon such date as four members of the Commission have taken office.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 707, formerly title VI, § 607, 48 Stat. 1105; renumbered title VII, § 707, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804.)

§ 608. Separability

If any provision of this chapter or the application thereof to any person or circumstance is held invalid, the remainder of the chapter and the application of such provision to other persons or circumstances shall not be affected thereby.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 708, formerly title VI, § 608, 48 Stat. 1105; renumbered title VII, § 708, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804.)

§ 609. Short title

This chapter may be cited as the “Communications Act of 1934.”

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 709, formerly title VI, § 609, 48 Stat. 1105; renumbered title VII, § 709, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804.)

§ 610. Telephone service for disabled

(a) Establishment of regulations

(b) Hearing aid compatibility requirements

(1) Except as provided in paragraphs (2) and (3) and subsection (c), the Commission shall require that customer premises equipment described in this paragraph provide internal means for effective use with hearing aids that are designed to be compatible with telephones which meet established technical standards for hearing aid compatibility. Customer premises equipment described in this paragraph are the following:

(A) All essential telephones.

(B) All telephones manufactured in the United States (other than for export) more than one year after August 16, 1988, or imported for use in the United States more than one year after such date.

(C) All customer premises equipment used with advanced communications services that is designed to provide 2-way voice communication via a built-in speaker intended to be held to the ear in a manner functionally equivalent to a telephone, subject to the regulations prescribed by the Commission under subsection (e).

(2)

(A) The regulations prescribed by the Commission under paragraph (1) shall exempt from the requirements established pursuant to subparagraphs (B) and (C) of paragraph (1) only—

(i) telephones used with public mobile services;

(ii) telephones used with private radio services; and

(iii) secure telephones.

(B) The Commission shall periodically assess the appropriateness of continuing in effect the exemptions for telephones and other customer premises equipment described in subparagraph (A) of this paragraph. The Commission shall revoke or otherwise limit any such exemption if the Commission determines that—

(i) such revocation or limitation is in the public interest;

(ii) continuation of the exemption without such revocation or limitation would have an adverse effect on hearing-impaired individuals;

(iii) compliance with the requirements of subparagraph (B) or (C) of paragraph (1) is technologically feasible for the telephones to which the exemption applies; and

(iv) compliance with the requirements of subparagraph (B) or (C) of paragraph (1) would not increase costs to such an extent that the telephones to which the exemption applies could not be successfully marketed.

(3) The Commission may, upon the application of any interested person, initiate a proceeding to waive the requirements of paragraph (1)(B) of this subsection with respect to new telephones, or telephones associated with a new technology or service. The Commission shall not grant such a waiver unless the Commission determines, on the basis of evidence in the record of such proceeding, that such telephones, or such technology or service, are in the public interest, and that (A) compliance with the requirements of paragraph (1)(B) is technologically infeasible, or (B) compliance with such requirements would increase the costs of the telephones, or of the technology or service, to such an extent that such telephones, technology, or service could not be successfully marketed. In any proceeding under this paragraph to grant a waiver from the requirements of paragraph (1)(B), the Commission shall consider the effect on hearing-impaired individuals of granting the waiver. The Commission shall periodically review and determine the continuing need for any waiver granted pursuant to this paragraph.

(4) For purposes of this subsection—

(A) the term “essential telephones” means only coin-operated telephones, telephones provided for emergency use, and other telephones frequently needed for use by persons using such hearing aids;

(B) the term “telephones used with public mobile services” means telephones and other customer premises equipment used in whole or in part with air-to-ground radiotelephone services, cellular radio telecommunications services, offshore radio, rural radio service, public land mobile telephone service, or other common carrier radio communication services covered by title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations, or any functionally equivalent unlicensed wireless services;

(C) the term “telephones used with private radio services” means telephones and other customer premises equipment used in whole or in part with private land mobile radio services and other communications services characterized by the Commission in its rules as private radio services; and

(D) the term “secure telephones” means telephones that are approved by the United States Government for the transmission of classified or sensitive voice communications.

(d) Labeling of packaging materials for equipment

(e) Costs and benefits; encouragement of use of currently available technology

(f) Periodic review of regulations; retrofitting

(g) Recovery of reasonable and prudent costs

(h) Rule of construction

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 710, formerly title VI, § 610, as added Pub. L. 97–410, § 3, Jan. 3, 1983, 96 Stat. 2043; renumbered title VII, § 710, Pub. L. 98–549, § 6(a), Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804; amended Pub. L. 100–394, § 3, Aug. 16, 1988, 102 Stat. 976; Pub. L. 103–414, title III, § 304(a)(16), Oct. 25, 1994, 108 Stat. 4297; Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 102, Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2753.)

§ 611. Closed-captioning of public service announcements

Any television public service announcement that is produced or funded in whole or in part by any agency or instrumentality of Federal Government shall include closed captioning of the verbal span of such announcement. A television broadcast station licensee—

(1) shall not be required to supply closed captioning for any such announcement that fails to include it; and

(2) shall not be liable for broadcasting any such announcement without transmitting a closed caption unless the licensee intentionally fails to transmit the closed caption that was included with the announcement.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 711, as added Pub. L. 98–549, § 8, Oct. 30, 1984, 98 Stat. 2804; amended Pub. L. 101–336, title IV, § 402, July 26, 1990, 104 Stat. 369.)

§ 612. Syndicated exclusivity

(a) The Federal Communications Commission shall initiate a combined inquiry and rulemaking proceeding for the purpose of—

(1) determining the feasibility of imposing syndicated exclusivity rules with respect to the delivery of syndicated programming (as defined by the Commission) for private home viewing of secondary transmissions by satellite of broadcast station signals similar to the rules issued by the Commission with respect to syndicated exclusivity and cable television; and

(2) adopting such rules if the Commission considers the imposition of such rules to be feasible.

(b) In the event that the Commission adopts such rules, any willful and repeated secondary transmission made by a satellite carrier to the public of a primary transmission embodying the performance or display of a work which violates such Commission rules shall be subject to the remedies, sanctions, and penalties provided by subchapter V and section 605 of this title.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 712, as added Pub. L. 100–667, title II, § 203, Nov. 16, 1988, 102 Stat. 3958; amended Pub. L. 103–414, title III, § 304(a)(17), Oct. 25, 1994, 108 Stat. 4297.)

§ 613. Video programming accessibility

(a) Repealed. Pub. L. 115–141, div. P, title IV, § 402(i)(11), Mar. 23, 2018, 132 Stat. 1090

(b) Accountability criteria

Within 18 months after February 8, 1996, the Commission shall prescribe such regulations as are necessary to implement this section. Such regulations shall ensure that—

(1) video programming first published or exhibited after the effective date of such regulations is fully accessible through the provision of closed captions, except as provided in subsection (d); and

(2) video programming providers or owners maximize the accessibility of video programming first published or exhibited prior to the effective date of such regulations through the provision of closed captions, except as provided in subsection (d).

(1) In general

(2) Deadlines for programming delivered using Internet protocol

(A) Regulations on closed captioning on video programming delivered using Internet protocol

(B) Schedule

(D) Requirements for regulations

The regulations prescribed under this paragraph—

(i) shall contain a definition of “near-live programming” and “edited for Internet distribution”;

(ii) may exempt any service, class of service, program, class of program, equipment, or class of equipment for which the Commission has determined that the application of such regulations would be economically burdensome for the provider of such service, program, or equipment;

(iii) shall clarify that, for the purposes of implementation, of this subsection, the terms “video programming distributors” and “video programming providers” include an entity that makes available directly to the end user video programming through a distribution method that uses Internet protocol;

(iv) and describe the responsibilities of video programming providers or distributors and video programming owners;

(v) shall establish a mechanism to make available to video programming providers and distributors information on video programming subject to the Act on an ongoing basis;

(vi) shall consider that the video programming provider or distributor shall be deemed in compliance if such entity enables the rendering or pass through of closed captions and makes a good faith effort to identify video programming subject to the Act using the mechanism created in (v); and

(vii) shall provide that de minimis failure to comply with such regulations by a video programming provider or owner shall not be treated as a violation of the regulations.

(3) Alternate means of compliance

(d) Exemptions

Notwithstanding subsection (b)—

(1) the Commission may exempt by regulation programs, classes of programs, or services for which the Commission has determined that the provision of closed captioning would be economically burdensome to the provider or owner of such programming;

(2) a provider of video programming or the owner of any program carried by the provider shall not be obligated to supply closed captions if such action would be inconsistent with contracts in effect on February 8, 1996, except that nothing in this section shall be construed to relieve a video programming provider of its obligations to provide services required by Federal law; and

(3) a provider of video programming or program owner may petition the Commission for an exemption from the requirements of this section, and the Commission may grant such petition upon a showing that the requirements contained in this section would be economically burdensome. During the pendency of such a petition, such provider or owner shall be exempt from the requirements of this section. The Commission shall act to grant or deny any such petition, in whole or in part, within 6 months after the Commission receives such petition, unless the Commission finds that an extension of the 6-month period is necessary to determine whether such requirements are economically burdensome.

(e) Undue burden

The term “undue burden” means significant difficulty or expense. In determining whether the closed captions necessary to comply with the requirements of this paragraph would result in an undue economic burden, the factors to be considered include—

(1) the nature and cost of the closed captions for the programming;

(2) the impact on the operation of the provider or program owner;

(3) the financial resources of the provider or program owner; and

(4) the type of operations of the provider or program owner.

(f) Video description

(1) Reinstatement of regulations

(2) Modifications to reinstated regulations

Such regulations shall be modified only as follows:

(A) The regulations shall apply to video programming, as defined in subsection (h), insofar as such programming is transmitted for display on television in digital format.

(B) The Commission shall update the list of the top 25 designated market areas, the list of the top 5 national nonbroadcast networks that have at least 50 hours per quarter of prime time programming that is not exempt under this paragraph, and the beginning calendar quarter for which compliance shall be calculated.

(C) The regulations may permit a provider of video programming or a program owner to petition the Commission for an exemption from the requirements of this section upon a showing that the requirements contained in this section be economically burdensome.

(D) The Commission may exempt from the regulations established pursuant to paragraph (1) a service, class of services, program, class of programs, equipment, or class of equipment for which the Commission has determined that the application of such regulations would be economically burdensome for the provider of such service, program, or equipment.

(E) The regulations shall not apply to live or near-live programming.

(F) The regulations shall provide for an appropriate phased schedule of deadlines for compliance.

(G) The Commission shall consider extending the exemptions and limitations in the reinstated regulations for technical capability reasons to all providers and owners of video programming.

(3) Inquiries on further video description requirements

The Commission shall commence the following inquiries not later than 1 year after the completion of the phase-in of the reinstated regulations and shall report to Congress 1 year thereafter on the findings for each of the following:

(A) Video description in television programming

(B) Video description in video programming distributed on the Internet

(4) Continuing Commission authority

(A) In general

(B) Limitation

(i) In general

(ii) Phase-in deadline

(iii) Report

Nine years after October 8, 2010, the Commission shall submit to the Committee on Energy and Commerce of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate a report assessing—

(I) the types of described video programming that is available to consumers;(II) consumer use of such programming;(III) the costs to program owners, providers, and distributors of creating such programming;(IV) the potential costs to program owners, providers, and distributors in designated market areas outside of the top 60 of creating such programming;(V) the benefits to consumers of such programming;(VI) the amount of such programming currently available; and(VII) the need for additional described programming in designated market areas outside the top 60.

(iv) Additional market areas

Ten years after October 8, 2010, the Commission shall have the authority, based upon the findings, conclusions, and recommendations contained in the report under clause (iii), to phase in the video description regulations for up to an additional 10 designated market areas each year—

(I) if the costs of implementing the video description regulations to program owners, providers, and distributors in those additional markets are reasonable, as determined by the Commission; and(II) except that the Commission may grant waivers to entities in specific designated market areas where it deems appropriate.

(g) Emergency information

Not later than 1 year after the Advisory Committee report under subsection (e)(2) 1 is submitted to the Commission, the Commission shall complete a proceeding to—

(1) identify methods to convey emergency information (as that term is defined in section 79.2 of title 47, Code of Federal Regulations) in a manner accessible to individuals who are blind or visually impaired; and

(2) promulgate regulations that require video programming providers and video programming distributors (as those terms are defined in section 79.1 of title 47, Code of Federal Regulations) and program owners to convey such emergency information in a manner accessible to individuals who are blind or visually impaired.

(h) Definitions

For purposes of this section, section 303 of this title, and section 330 of this title:

(1) Video description

(2) Video programming

(j)2

2 So in original. No subsec. (i) has been enacted.

Private rights of actions prohibited

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 713, as added Pub. L. 104–104, title III, § 305, Feb. 8, 1996, 110 Stat. 126; amended Pub. L. 111–260, title II, § 202, Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2767; Pub. L. 111–265, § 2(6)–(11), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2795, 2796; Pub. L. 115–141, div. P, title IV, § 402(i)(11), Mar. 23, 2018, 132 Stat. 1090.)

§ 614. Telecommunications Development Fund

(a) Purpose of section

It is the purpose of this section—

(1) to promote access to capital for small businesses in order to enhance competition in the telecommunications industry;

(2) to stimulate new technology development, and promote employment and training; and

(3) to support universal service and promote delivery of telecommunications services to underserved rural and urban areas.

(b) Establishment of Fund

(d) Accounts of Fund

The Fund shall maintain its accounts at a financial institution designated for purposes of this section by the Chairman of the Board. The accounts of the Fund shall consist of—

(1) such sums as may be appropriated to the Commission for advances to the Fund;

(2) any contributions or donations to the Fund that are accepted by the Fund; and

(3) any repayment of, or other payment made with respect to, loans, equity, or other extensions of credit made from the Fund.

(e) Use of Fund

All moneys deposited into the accounts of the Fund shall be used solely for—

(1) the making of loans, investments, or other extensions of credits to eligible small businesses in accordance with subsection (f);

(2) the provision of financial advice to eligible small businesses;

(3) expenses for the administration and management of the Fund (including salaries, expenses, and the rental or purchase of office space for the fund); 1

1 So in original. Probably should be “Fund);”.

(4) preparation of research, studies, or financial analyses; and

(5) other services consistent with the purposes of this section.

(f) Lending and credit operations

Loans or other extensions of credit from the Fund shall be made available to an eligible small business on the basis of—

(1) the analysis of the business plan of the eligible small business;

(2) the reasonable availability of collateral to secure the loan or credit extension;

(3) the extent to which the loan or credit extension promotes the purposes of this section; and

(4) other lending policies as defined by the Board.

(g) Return of advances

(h) General corporate powers

The Fund shall have power—

(1) to sue and be sued, complain and defend, in its corporate name and through its own counsel;

(2) to adopt, alter, and use the corporate seal, which shall be judicially noticed;

(3) to adopt, amend, and repeal by its Board of Directors, bylaws, rules, and regulations as may be necessary for the conduct of its business;

(4) to conduct its business, carry on its operations, and have officers and exercise the power granted by this section in any State without regard to any qualification or similar statute in any State;

(5) to lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire, own, hold, improve, use, or otherwise deal in and with any property, real, personal, or mixed, or any interest therein, wherever situated, for the purposes of the Fund;

(6) to accept gifts or donations of services, or of property, real, personal, or mixed, tangible or intangible, in aid of any of the purposes of the Fund;

(7) to sell, convey, mortgage, pledge, lease, exchange, and otherwise dispose of its property and assets;

(8) to appoint such officers, attorneys, employees, and agents as may be required, to determine their qualifications, to define their duties, to fix their salaries, require bonds for them, and fix the penalty thereof; and

(9) to enter into contracts, to execute instruments, to incur liabilities, to make loans and equity investment, and to do all things as are necessary or incidental to the proper management of its affairs and the proper conduct of its business.

(i) Accounting, auditing, and reporting

(j) Report on audits by Treasury

(k) Definitions

As used in this section:

(1) Eligible small business

(2) Fund

(3) Telecommunications industry

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 714, as added Pub. L. 104–104, title VII, § 707(b), Feb. 8, 1996, 110 Stat. 154; amended Pub. L. 108–494, title II, § 205, Dec. 23, 2004, 118 Stat. 3996; Pub. L. 112–96, title VI, § 6602, Feb. 22, 2012, 126 Stat. 245.)

§ 615. Support for universal emergency telephone number

The Federal Communications Commission shall encourage and support efforts by States to deploy comprehensive end-to-end emergency communications infrastructure and programs, based on coordinated statewide plans, including seamless, ubiquitous, reliable wireless telecommunications networks and enhanced wireless 9–1–1 service. In encouraging and supporting that deployment, the Commission shall consult and cooperate with State and local officials responsible for emergency services and public safety, the telecommunications industry (specifically including the cellular and other wireless telecommunications service providers), the motor vehicle manufacturing industry, emergency medical service providers and emergency dispatch providers, transportation officials, special 9–1–1 districts, public safety, fire service and law enforcement officials, consumer groups, and hospital emergency and trauma care personnel (including emergency physicians, trauma surgeons, and nurses). The Commission shall encourage each State to develop and implement coordinated statewide deployment plans, through an entity designated by the governor, and to include representatives of the foregoing organizations and entities in development and implementation of such plans. Nothing in this section shall be construed to authorize or require the Commission to impose obligations or costs on any person.

(Pub. L. 106–81, § 3(b), Oct. 26, 1999, 113 Stat. 1287.)

§ 615a. Service provider parity of protection

(a) Provider parity

(b) User parity

(d) Basis for enactment

(Pub. L. 106–81, § 4, Oct. 26, 1999, 113 Stat. 1288; Pub. L. 110–283, title II, § 201(a), July 23, 2008, 122 Stat. 2624.)

§ 615a–1. Duty to provide 9–1–1 and enhanced 9–1–1 service

(a) Duties

(b) Parity for IP-enabled voice service providers

(1) within 90 days after the date of enactment of the New and Emerging Technologies 911 Improvement Act of 2008, shall issue regulations implementing such Act, including regulations that—

(A) ensure that IP-enabled voice service providers have the ability to exercise their rights under subsection (b);

(B) take into account any technical, network security, or information privacy requirements that are specific to IP-enabled voice services; and

(C) provide, with respect to any capabilities that are not required to be made available to a commercial mobile service provider but that the Commission determines under subparagraph (B) of this paragraph or paragraph (3) are necessary for an IP-enabled voice service provider to comply with its obligations under subsection (a), that such capabilities shall be available at the same rates, terms, and conditions as would apply if such capabilities were made available to a commercial mobile service provider;

(2) shall require IP-enabled voice service providers to which the regulations apply to register with the Commission and to establish a point of contact for public safety and government officials relative to 9–1–1 and enhanced 9–1–1 service and access; and

(3) may modify such regulations from time to time, as necessitated by changes in the market or technology, to ensure the ability of an IP-enabled voice service provider to comply with its obligations under subsection (a) and to exercise its rights under subsection (b).

(d) Delegation of enforcement to State commissions

(e) Implementation

(1) Limitation

(2) Enforcement

(f) State authority over fees

(1) Authority

(2) Fee accountability report

(3) Acceptable obligations or expenditures

(A) Rules required

(B) Purposes and functions

(D) DefinitionsIn this paragraph:

(i) 9–1–1 fee or charge

(ii) 9–1–1 services

(iii) State or taxing jurisdiction

(4) Participation

(5) Petition regarding additional purposes and functions

(A) In general

(B) Demonstration describedThe demonstration described in this subparagraph is a demonstration that the purpose or function—

(i) supports public safety answering point functions or operations; or

(ii) has a direct impact on the ability of a public safety answering point to—(I) receive or respond to 9–1–1 calls; or(II) dispatch emergency responders.

(g) Availability of PSAP information

(h) Development of standardsThe Commission shall work cooperatively with public safety organizations, industry participants, and the E–911 Implementation Coordination Office to develop best practices that promote consistency, where appropriate, including procedures for—

(1) defining geographic coverage areas for public safety answering points;

(2) defining network diversity requirements for delivery of IP-enabled 9–1–1 and enhanced 9–1–1 calls;

(3) call-handling in the event of call overflow or network outages;

(4) public safety answering point certification and testing requirements;

(5) validation procedures for inputting and updating location information in relevant databases; and

(6) the format for delivering address information to public safety answering points.

(i) Rule of construction

(j) Severability clause

(Pub. L. 106–81, § 6, as added Pub. L. 110–283, title I, § 101(2), July 23, 2008, 122 Stat. 2620; amended Pub. L. 110–368, § 1(a), Oct. 8, 2008, 122 Stat. 4027; Pub. L. 116–260, div. FF, title IX, § 902(c), Dec. 27, 2020, 134 Stat. 3206.)

§ 615b. Definitions

As used in this Act:

(1) Secretary

(2) State

(3) Public safety answering point; PSAP

(4) Wireless carrier

(5) Enhanced wireless 9–1–1 service

(6) Wireless 9–1–1 service

(7) Emergency dispatch providers

(8)1

1 So in original. Two pars. (8) have been enacted.

IP-enabled voice service

(8)1 Other emergency communications service

(9) Other emergency communications service provider

The term “other emergency communications service provider” means—

(A) an entity other than a local exchange carrier, wireless carrier, or an IP-enabled voice service provider that is required by the Federal Communications Commission consistent with the Commission’s authority under the Communications Act of 1934 [47 U.S.C. 151 et seq.] to provide other emergency communications services; or

(B) in the absence of a Commission requirement as described in subparagraph (A), an entity that voluntarily elects to provide other emergency communications services and is specifically authorized by the appropriate local or State 9–1–1 service governing authority to provide other emergency communications services.

(10) Enhanced 9–1–1 service

(Pub. L. 106–81, § 7, formerly § 6, Oct. 26, 1999, 113 Stat. 1289; renumbered § 7 and amended Pub. L. 110–283, title I, § 101(1), (3), title II, § 201(b), July 23, 2008, 122 Stat. 2620, 2623, 2624.)

§ 615c. Emergency Access Advisory Committee

(a) Establishment

(b) Membership

As soon as practicable after October 8, 2010, the Chairman of the Commission shall appoint the members of the Advisory Committee, ensuring a balance between individuals with disabilities and other stakeholders, and shall designate two such members as the co-chairs of the Committee. Members of the Advisory Committee shall be selected from the following groups:

(1) State and local government and emergency responder representatives

(2) Subject matter experts

Individuals who have the technical knowledge and expertise to serve on the Advisory Committee in the fulfillment of its duties, including representatives of—

(A) providers of interconnected and non-interconnected VoIP services;

(B) vendors, developers, and manufacturers of systems, facilities, equipment, and capabilities for the provision of interconnected and non-interconnected VoIP services;

(D) Federal agencies or departments responsible for the implementation of the Next Generation E 9–1–1 system;

(E) the National Institute of Standards and Technology; and

(F) other individuals with such technical knowledge and expertise.

(3) Representatives of other stakeholders and interested parties

Within 1 year after the completion of the member appointment process by the Chairman of the Commission pursuant to subsection (b), the Advisory Committee shall conduct a national survey of individuals with disabilities, seeking input from the groups described in subsection (b)(2), to determine the most effective and efficient technologies and methods by which to enable access to emergency services by individuals with disabilities and shall develop and submit to the Commission recommendations to implement such technologies and methods, including recommendations—

(1) with respect to what actions are necessary as a part of the migration to a national Internet protocol-enabled network to achieve reliable, interoperable communication transmitted over such network that will ensure access to emergency services by individuals with disabilities;

(2) for protocols, technical capabilities, and technical requirements to ensure the reliability and interoperability necessary to ensure access to emergency services by individuals with disabilities;

(3) for the establishment of technical standards for use by public safety answering points, designated default answering points, and local emergency authorities;

(4) for relevant technical standards and requirements for communication devices and equipment and technologies to enable the use of reliable emergency access;

(5) for procedures to be followed by IP-enabled network providers to ensure that such providers do not install features, functions, or capabilities that would conflict with technical standards;

(6) for deadlines by which providers of interconnected and non-interconnected VoIP services and manufacturers of equipment used for such services shall achieve the actions required in paragraphs (1) through (5), where achievable, and for the possible phase out of the use of current-generation TTY technology to the extent that this technology is replaced with more effective and efficient technologies and methods to enable access to emergency services by individuals with disabilities;

(7) for the establishment of rules to update the Commission’s rules with respect to 9–1–1 services and E–911 services (as defined in section 158(e)(4) 1

1 See References in Text note below.

of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration Organization Act (47 U.S.C. 942(e)(4))), for users of telecommunications relay services as new technologies and methods for providing such relay services are adopted by providers of such relay services; and

(8) that take into account what is technically and economically feasible.

(d) Meetings

(1) Initial meeting

(2) Other meetings

(3) Notice; open meetings

(e) Rules

(1) Quorum

(2) Subcommittees

(3) Additional rules

(f) Chapter 10 of title 5

(g) Implementing recommendations

(h) Definitions

In this section—

(1) the term “Commission” means the Federal Communications Commission;

(2) the term “Chairman” means the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission; and

(3) except as otherwise expressly provided, other terms have the meanings given such terms in section 153 of this title.

(Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 106, Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2762; Pub. L. 117–286, § 4(a)(298), Dec. 27, 2022, 136 Stat. 4338.)

§ 616. Internet protocol-based relay services

Within one year after October 8, 2010, each interconnected VoIP service provider and each provider of non-interconnected VoIP service shall participate in and contribute to the Telecommunications Relay Services Fund established in section 64.604(c)(5)(iii) of title 47, Code of Federal Regulations, as in effect on October 8, 2010, in a manner prescribed by the Commission by regulation to provide for obligations of such providers that are consistent with and comparable to the obligations of other contributors to such Fund.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 715, as added Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 103(b), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2755.)

§ 617. Access to advanced communications services and equipment

(a) Manufacturing

(1) In general

(2) Industry flexibility

A manufacturer of equipment may satisfy the requirements of paragraph (1) with respect to such equipment by—

(A) ensuring that the equipment that such manufacturer offers is accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities without the use of third party applications, peripheral devices, software, hardware, or customer premises equipment; or

(B) if such manufacturer chooses, using third party applications, peripheral devices, software, hardware, or customer premises equipment that is available to the consumer at nominal cost and that individuals with disabilities can access.

(b) Service providers

(1) In general

(2) Industry flexibility

A provider of services may satisfy the requirements of paragraph (1) with respect to such services by—

(A) ensuring that the services that such provider offers are accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities without the use of third party applications, peripheral devices, software, hardware, or customer premises equipment; or

(B) if such provider chooses, using third party applications, peripheral devices, software, hardware, or customer premises equipment that is available to the consumer at nominal cost and that individuals with disabilities can access.

(d) Network features, functions, and capabilities

(e) Regulations

(1) In general

Within one year after October 8, 2010, the Commission shall promulgate such regulations as are necessary to implement this section. In prescribing the regulations, the Commission shall—

(A) include performance objectives to ensure the accessibility, usability, and compatibility of advanced communications services and the equipment used for advanced communications services by individuals with disabilities;

(B) provide that advanced communications services, the equipment used for advanced communications services, and networks used to provide advanced communications services may not impair or impede the accessibility of information span when accessibility has been incorporated into that span for transmission through advanced communications services, equipment used for advanced communications services, or networks used to provide advanced communications services;

(C) determine the obligations under this section of manufacturers, service providers, and providers of applications or services accessed over service provider networks; and

(D) not mandate technical standards, except that the Commission may adopt technical standards as a safe harbor for such compliance if necessary to facilitate the manufacturers’ and service providers’ compliance with sections 2

2 So in original. Probably should be “subsections”.

(a) through (c).

(2) Prospective guidelines

(f) Services and equipment subject to section 255 of this title

(g) Achievable defined

For purposes of this section and section 619 of this title, the term “achievable” means with reasonable effort or expense, as determined by the Commission. In determining whether the requirements of a provision are achievable, the Commission shall consider the following factors:

(1) The nature and cost of the steps needed to meet the requirements of this section with respect to the specific equipment or service in question.

(2) The technical and economic impact on the operation of the manufacturer or provider and on the operation of the specific equipment or service in question, including on the development and deployment of new communications technologies.

(3) The type of operations of the manufacturer or provider.

(4) The extent to which the service provider or manufacturer in question offers accessible services or equipment containing varying degrees of functionality and features, and offered at differing price points.

(h) Commission flexibility

(1) Waiver

The Commission shall have the authority, on its own motion or in response to a petition by a manufacturer or provider of advanced communications services or any interested party, to waive the requirements of this section for any feature or function of equipment used to provide or access advanced communications services, or for any class of such equipment, for any provider of advanced communications services, or for any class of such services, that—

(A) is capable of accessing an advanced communications service; and

(B) is designed for multiple purposes, but is designed primarily for purposes other than using advanced communications services.

(2) Small entity exemption

(i) Customized equipment or services

(j) Rule of construction

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 716, as added Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 104(a), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2755; amended Pub. L. 111–265, § 2(1), (2), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2795.)

§ 618. Enforcement and recordkeeping obligations

(a) Complaint and enforcement proceduresWithin one year after October 8, 2010, the Commission shall establish regulations that facilitate the filing of formal and informal complaints that allege a violation of section 255, 617, or 619 of this title, establish procedures for enforcement actions by the Commission with respect to such violations, and implement the recordkeeping obligations of paragraph (5) for manufacturers and providers subject to such sections. Such regulations shall include the following provisions:

(1) No fee

(2) Receipt of complaints

(3) Complaints to the Commission

(A) In general

(B) Investigation of informal complaintThe Commission shall investigate the allegations in an informal complaint and, within 180 days after the date on which such complaint was filed with the Commission, issue an order concluding the investigation, unless such complaint is resolved before such time. The order shall include a determination whether any violation occurred.

(i) If the Commission determines that a violation has occurred, the Commission may, in the order issued under this subparagraph or in a subsequent order, direct the manufacturer or service provider to bring the service, or in the case of a manufacturer, the next generation of the equipment or device, into compliance with requirements of those sections within a reasonable time established by the Commission in its order.

(ii)No violation.—If a determination is made that a violation has not occurred, the Commission shall provide the basis for such determination.

(4) Opportunity to respond

(5) Recordkeeping

(A) Beginning one year after the effective date of regulations promulgated pursuant to section 617(e) of this title, each manufacturer and provider subject to sections 255, 617, and 619 of this title shall maintain, in the ordinary course of business and for a reasonable period, records of the efforts taken by such manufacturer or provider to implement sections 255, 617, and 619 of this title, including the following:

(i) Information about the manufacturer’s or provider’s efforts to consult with individuals with disabilities.

(ii) Descriptions of the accessibility features of its products and services.

(iii) Information about the compatibility of such products and services with peripheral devices or specialized customer premise equipment commonly used by individuals with disabilities to achieve access.

(B) An officer of a manufacturer or provider shall submit to the Commission an annual certification that records are being kept in accordance with subparagraph (A).

(C) After the filing of a formal or informal complaint against a manufacturer or provider, the Commission may request, and shall keep confidential, a copy of the records maintained by such manufacturer or provider pursuant to subparagraph (A) of this paragraph that are directly relevant to the equipment or service that is the subject of such complaint.

(6) Failure to act

(7) Commission jurisdiction

(8) Private resolutions of complaints

(b) Reports to Congress

(1) In generalEvery two years after October 8, 2010, the Commission shall submit to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Energy and Commerce of the House of Representatives a report that includes the following:

(A) An assessment of the level of compliance with sections 255, 617, and 619 of this title.

(B) An evaluation of the extent to which any accessibility barriers still exist with respect to new communications technologies.

(C) The number and nature of complaints received pursuant to subsection (a) during the two years that are the subject of the report.

(D) A description of the actions taken to resolve such complaints under this section, including forfeiture penalties assessed.

(E) The length of time that was taken by the Commission to resolve each such complaint.

(F) The number, status, nature, and outcome of any actions for mandamus filed pursuant to subsection (a)(6) and the number, status, nature, and outcome of any appeals filed pursuant to section 402(b)(10) of this title.

(G) An assessment of the effect of the requirements of this section on the development and deployment of new communications technologies.

(2) Public comment required

(1) In generalThe Comptroller General shall conduct a study to consider and evaluate the following:

(A) The Commission’s compliance with the requirements of this section, including the Commission’s level of compliance with the deadlines established under and pursuant to this section and deadlines for acting on complaints pursuant to subsection (a).

(B) Whether the enforcement actions taken by the Commission pursuant to this section have been appropriate and effective in ensuring compliance with this section.

(D) Whether, and to what extent (if any), the requirements of this section have an effect on the development and deployment of new communications technologies.

(2) Report

(d) Clearinghouse

(e) Outreach and education

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 717, as added Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 104(a), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2758; amended Pub. L. 111–265, § 2(3), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2795.)

§ 619. Internet browsers built into telephones used with public mobile services

(a) Accessibility

If a manufacturer of a telephone used with public mobile services (as such term is defined in section 610(b)(4)(B) of this title) includes an Internet browser in such telephone, or if a provider of mobile service arranges for the inclusion of a browser in telephones to sell to customers, the manufacturer or provider shall ensure that the functions of the included browser (including the ability to launch the browser) are accessible to and usable by individuals who are blind or have a visual impairment, unless doing so is not achievable, except that this subsection shall not impose any requirement on such manufacturer or provider—

(1) to make accessible or usable any Internet browser other than a browser that such manufacturer or provider includes or arranges to include in the telephone; or

(2) to make Internet span, applications, or services accessible or usable (other than enabling individuals with disabilities to use an included browser to access such span, applications, or services).

(b) Industry flexibility

A manufacturer or provider may satisfy the requirements of subsection (a) with respect to such telephone or services by—

(1) ensuring that the telephone or services that such manufacture or provider offers is accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities without the use of third party applications, peripheral devices, software, hardware, or customer premises equipment; or

(2) using third party applications, peripheral devices, software, hardware, or customer premises equipment that is available to the consumer at nominal cost and that individuals with disabilities can access.

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 718, as added Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 104(a), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2761.)

§ 620. Relay services for deaf-blind individuals

(a) In general

(b) Individuals who are deaf-blind defined

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 719, as added Pub. L. 111–260, title I, § 105, Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2762; amended Pub. L. 111–265, § 2(4), (5), Oct. 8, 2010, 124 Stat. 2795.)

§ 621. Rulemaking on loud commercials required

(a) Rulemaking required

(b) Implementation

(1) Effective date

(2) Waiver

(3) Waiver authority

(d) Definitions

For purposes of this section—

(1) the term “television broadcast station” has the meaning given such term in section 325 of the Communications Act of 1934 (47 U.S.C. 325); and

(2) the terms “cable operator” and “multi-channel video programming distributor” have the meanings given such terms in section 602 of Communications Act of 1934 (47 U.S.C. 522).

(Pub. L. 111–311, § 2, Dec. 15, 2010, 124 Stat. 3294.)

§ 622. Optional electronic labeling of communications equipment

(a) DefinitionsIn this section—

(1) the term “electronic labeling” means displaying required labeling and regulatory information electronically; and

(2) the term “radiofrequency device with display” means any equipment or device that—

(A) is required under regulations of the Commission to be authorized by the Commission before the equipment or device may be marketed or sold within the United States; and

(B) has the capability to digitally display required labeling and regulatory information.

(b) Requirement to promulgate regulations for electronic labeling

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 720, as added Pub. L. 113–197, § 3, Nov. 26, 2014, 128 Stat. 2055.)

§ 623. Configuration of multi-line telephone systems for direct dialing of 9–1–1.

(a) System manufacture, importation, sale, and lease

(b) System installation, management, and operation

(d) Effect on State law

(e) Enforcement

(f) Multi-line telephone system defined

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 721, as added Pub. L. 115–127, § 2(a), Feb. 16, 2018, 132 Stat. 326.)

§ 624. Disclosure requirements for United States-based foreign media outlets

(a) Reports by outlets to Commission

Not later than 60 days after August 13, 2018, and not less frequently than every 6 months thereafter, a United States-based foreign media outlet shall submit to the Commission a report that contains the following information:

(1) The name of such outlet.

(2) A description of the relationship of such outlet to the foreign principal of such outlet, including a description of the legal structure of such relationship and any funding that such outlet receives from such principal.

(b) Reports by Commission to Congress

The Commission shall make publicly available on the internet website of the Commission each report submitted by a United States-based foreign media outlet under subsection (a) not later than the earlier of—

(1) the date that is 30 days after the outlet submits the report to the Commission; or

(2) the date on which the Commission transmits to Congress under subsection (b) the report covering the 6-month period during which the report of the outlet was submitted to the Commission under subsection (a).

(d) Definitions

In this section:

(1) Foreign principal

(2) United States-based foreign media outlet

The term “United States-based foreign media outlet” means an entity that—

(A) produces or distributes video programming (as defined in section 522 of this title) that is transmitted, or intended for transmission, by a multichannel video programming distributor (as defined in such section) to consumers in the United States; and

(B) would be an agent of a foreign principal (as defined in paragraph (1)) for purposes of the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 (22 U.S.C. 611 et seq.) but for section 1(d) of such Act (22 U.S.C. 611(d)).

(June 19, 1934, ch. 652, title VII, § 722, as added Pub. L. 115–232, div. A, title X, § 1085, Aug. 13, 2018, 132 Stat. 1991.)